Psychological Approaches to Literature 7

Consistency Theory

Description
When our inner systems (beliefs, attitudes, values, etc.) all support one another and when these are also supported by external evidence, then we have a comfortable state of affairs. The discomfort of cognitive dissonance occurs when things fall out of alignment, which leads us to try to achieve a maximum practical level of consistency in our world.

We also have a very strong need to believe we are being consistent with social norms. When there is conflict between behaviors that are consistent with inner systems and behaviors that are consistent with social norms, the potential threat of social exclusion often sways us towards the latter, even though it may cause significant inner dissonance.

Ways we achieve consistency between conflicting items include:

Denial or ignoring : 'I didn't see it happen.'
Rationalization and excuses : 'It was going to fall anyway.'
Separation of items :'I don't use my car enough to make a difference .'
Transcendence : 'Nobody is perfect.'
Changing item : 'I'll be more careful next time.'
Persuasion : 'I'm good, really, aren't I?'

Example
If you make a promise, you will feel bad if you do not keep it.

SOURCE: http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/consistency_theory.htm

Psychological Approaches to Literature 6

Acquired Needs Theory

Description
Need are shaped over time by our experiences over time. Most of these fall into three general categories of needs:

Achievement (nAch)
Affiliation (nAff)
Power (nPow)
Acquired Needs Theory is also known as the Three-Need Theory or Learned Need Theory.

We have different preferences
We will tend have one of these needs that affects us more powerfully than others and thus affects our behaviors:

Achievers seek to excel and appreciate frequent recognition of how well they are doing. They will avoid low risk activities that have no chance of gain. They also will avoid high risks where there is a significant chance of failure.
Affiliation seekers look for harmonious relationships with other people. They will thus tend to conform and shy away from standing out. The seek approval rather than recognition.
Power seekers want power either to control other people (for their own goals) or to achieve higher goals (for the greater good). They seek neither recognition nor approval from others -- only agreement and compliance.

Identifying preferences
A common way of discovering our tendencies towards these is with a Thematic Apperception Test, which is a set of black-and-white pictures on cards, each showing an emotionally powerful situation. The person is presented with one card at a time and asked to make up a story about each.

SOURCE: http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/acquired_needs.htm

Types of Psychology Theories

Types of Psychology Theories

Developmental Theories
Developmental theories provide a set of guiding principles and concepts that describe and explain human development. Some developmental theories focus on the formation of a specific quality, such as Kohlberg's theory of moral development. Other developmental theories focus on growth that happens throughout the lifespan, such as Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.

Grand Theories
Grand theories are those comprehensive ideas often proposed by major thinkers such as Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson and Jean Piaget.

Grand theories of development include psychoanalytic theory, learning theory and cognitive theory. These theories seek to explain much of human behavior, but are often considered outdated and incomplete in the face of modern research. Psychologists and researchers often use grand theories as a basis for exploration, but consider smaller theories and recent research as well.

Minitheories
Minitheories describe a small, very specific aspect of development. A minitheory might explain fairly narrow behaviors, such as how self-esteem is formed or early childhood socialization. These theories are often rooted in the ideas established by grand theories, but they do not seek to describe and explain the whole of human behavior and growth.

Emergent Theories
Emergent theories are those that have been created fairly recently and are often formed by systematically combining various minitheories. These theories often draw on research and ideas from many different disciplines, but are not yet as broad or far-reaching as grand theories. The sociocultural theory proposed by theorist Lev Vygotsky is a good example of an emergent theory of development.

SOURCE: http://psychology.about.com/od/developmentecourse/a/dev_types.htm

Psychological Approaches to Literature 5

Support and Criticism of Piaget's Stage Theory

Piaget's theory of cognitive develop is well-known within the fields of psychology and education, but it has also been the subject of considerable criticism. While presented in a series of progressive stages, even Piaget believed that development does not always follow such a smooth and predictable path. In spite of the criticism, the theory has had a considerable impact on our understanding of child development. Piaget's observation that kids actually think differently than adults helped usher in a new era of research on the mental development of children.
Support for Piaget's Theory:
The Theory's Impact on Education

Piaget's focus on qualitative development had an important impact on education. While Piaget did not specifically apply his theory in this way, many educational programs are now built upon the belief that children should be taught at the level for which they are developmentally prepared.

In addition to this, a number of instructional strategies have been derived from Piaget's work. These strategies include providing a supportive environment, utilizing social interactions and peer teaching, and helping children see fallacies and inconsistencies in their thinking (Driscoll, 1994).
Criticisms of Piaget:
Problems With Research Methods

Much of the criticism of Piaget's work is in regards to his research methods. A major source of inspiration for the theory was Piaget's observations of his own three children. In addition to this, the other children in Piaget's small research sample were all from well-educated professionals of high socioeconomic status. Because of this unrepresentative sample, it is difficult to generalize his findings to a larger population.

Problems With Formal Operations

Research has disputed Piaget's argument that all children will automatically move to the next stage of development as they mature. Some data suggests that environmental factors may play a role in the development of formal operations.

Underestimates Children's Abilities

Most researchers agree that children possess many of the abilities at an earlier age than Piaget suspected. Recent theory of mind research has found that 4- and 5-year-old children have a rather sophisticated understanding of their own mental processes as well as those of other people. For example, children of this age have some ability to take the perspective of another person, meaning they are far less egocentric than Piaget believed.
Piaget’s Legacy:
While there are few strict Piagetians around today, most people can appreciate Piaget's influence and legacy. His work generated interest in child development and had an enormous impact on the future of education and developmental psychology.

SOURCE:http://psychology.about.com/od/piagetstheory/p/piagetcriticism.htm

Psychological Approaches to Literature 4

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
Psychosocial Development in Infancy and Early Childhood

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What is Psychosocial Development?
Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is one of the best-known theories of personality in psychology. Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality develops in a series of stages. Unlike Freud’s theory of psychosexual stages, Erikson’s theory describes the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan.

One of the main elements of Erikson’s psychosocial stage theory is the development of ego identity.1 Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction. According to Erikson, our ego identity is constantly changing due to new experience and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. In addition to ego identity, Erikson also believed that a sense of competence also motivates behaviors and actions. Each stage in Erikson’s theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life. If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which he sometimes referred to as ego strength or ego quality.2 If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy.

In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in development. In Erikson’s view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high, but so is the potential for failure.

Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust
•The first stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and one year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life.2


•Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child’s caregivers.


•If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children they care for. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.

Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
•The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.2


•Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However, Erikson's reasoning was quite different then that of Freud's. Erikson believe that learning to control one’s body functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence.


•Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing selection.


•Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.

Psychosocial Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt
•During the preschool years, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through directing play and other social interaction.


•Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt and lack of initiative.3

Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority
•This stage covers the early school years from approximately age 5 to 11.


•Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities.


•Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their ability to be successful.

Psychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion
•During adolescence, children are exploring their independence and developing a sense of self.


•Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will insecure and confused about themselves and the future.

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(Continued from Page 2)

Psychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation
•This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships.


•Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people. Those who are successful at this step will develop relationships that are committed and secure.


•Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a strong sense of personal identity was important to developing intimate relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.

Psychosocial Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation
•During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family.


•Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active in their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.

Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair
•This phase occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life.


•Those who are unsuccessful during this phase will feel that their life has been wasted and will experience many regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.


•Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death.


SOURCE:
http://psychology.about.com/od/psychosocialtheories/a/psychosocial.htm

Psychological Approaches to Literature 3

Psychology Theories
By Kendra Cherry, About.com Guide

Much of what we know about human thought and behavior has emerged thanks to various psychology theories. For example, behavioral theories demonstrated how conditioning can be used to learn new information and behaviors. Psychology students typically spend a great deal of time studying these different theories. Some theories have fallen out of favor, while others remain widely accepted, but all have contributed tremendously to our understanding of human thought and behavior. By learning more about these theories, you can gain a deeper and richer understanding of psychology's past, present and future.
Behavioral Theories
Cognitive Theories
Developmental Theories
Humanist Theories
Personality Theories
Social Psychology Theories

Behavioral Theories
Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Advocated by famous psychologists such as John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, behavioral theories dominated psychology during the early half of the twentieth century. Today, behavioral techniques are still widely used in therapeutic settings to help clients learn new skills and behaviors.

•What is Behaviorism?
•Classical Conditioning
•How Pavlov Discovered Classical Conditioning
•Principles of Classical Conditioning
•Operant Conditioning
•Schedules of Reinforcement
•What is Behavior Analysis?
•Stages of Change
•Conditioned Taste Aversions
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Cognitive Theories
Cognitive theories of psychology are focused on internal states, such as motivation, problem solving, decision-making, thinking, and attention.

•What is Cognitive Psychology?
•Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
•Theories of Intelligence
•What Is a Genius IQ Score?
•Perceptual Organization
•Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences
•Attention
•Memory
•4 Explanations for Forgetting
•Left Brain vs. Right Brain Dominance
•Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Developmental Theories
Theories of development provide a framework for thinking about human growth, development, and learning. If you have ever wondered about what motivates human thought and behavior, understanding these theories can provide useful insight into individuals and society.

•Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development
•Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
•Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
•Social Learning Theory
•Attachment Theory
•Parenting Styles

Humanist Theories
Humanistic psychology theories began to grow in popularity during the 1950s. While earlier theories often focused on abnormal behavior and psychological problems, humanist theories instead emphasized the basic goodness of human beings. Some of the major humanist theorists include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

•What is Humanistic Psychology?
•Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
•A Closer Look at the Needs Hierarchy
•Self-Efficacy
•What Is Self-Actualization?
•Characteristics of Self-Actualized People

Personality Theories
Almost everyday we describe and assess the personalities of the people around us. Whether we realize it or not, these daily musings on how and why people behave as they do are similar to what personality psychologists do. Personality psychology looks at the patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behavior that make a person unique. Some of the best known theories in psychology are devoted to the subject of personality.

•What is Personality?
•Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality
•Freud's Psychosexual Theory
•Trait Theory of Personality
•The "Big Five" Theory of Personality
•Murray's Psychogenic Needs Theory
•Neurotic Needs
•Defense Mechanisms
•Jung's Archetypes

Social Psychology Theories
Social psychology is focused on helping us understand and explain social behavior. Social theories are generally centered on specific social phenomena, including group behavior, prosocial behavior, social influence, love and much more.

•What Is Social Psychology?
•The Bystander Effect
•Conformity
•Obedience
•Leadership Theories
•Theories of Love

SOURCE: http://psychology.about.com/od/psychology101/u/psychology-theories.htm

Psychological Approaches to Literature 2

ABRAHAM MASLOW'S THEORY

Abraham Harold Maslow was born on April 1, 1908 in Brooklyn, New York. He was the first child of seven siblings. Both parents were uneducated Jewish adherents who immigrated from Russia. Because really hope their children succeed in the new world, his parents forced Maslow and his siblings study hard in order to achieve success in academics. No wonder childhood and adolescence, Maslow became lone child and spent his days with the book.

Maslow got the position of the department of psychology at Branders from 1951 to 1969. there he met Kurt Goldstein, who provide ideas or thoughts of self-actualization in his famous book, The Organism (1934). Here also he began to introduce something great humanistic psychology is more important to him than the theories he made.

Maslow developed these ideas further and called hirearki needs:


Physiological needs

These include the need for oxygen, water, protein, salt, sugar, calcium, and others such as minerals and vitamins. This, too, including the need to maintain the pH to be balanced and appropriate temperature. And also, there is a need for active, rest, sleep, to escape from the unneeded (CO2, sweat, urine, and feces), to guard against the pain.

The need for security

If physiological needs are considered, then this second layer needs arise. You will increasingly want to find situations and conditions that are safe, stable and protected. You will slowly want structure and order. Conversely, if the needs of the second layer is viewed negatively, your attention will be focused not on issues of hunger and thirst, but the fear and anxiety. Among adults in the United States, this need will manifest in their very strong desire to live next to good neighbors, a secure job, a mature retirement planning, insurance, and so forth.

The need of love and longing

The need to own or possess. When physiological and safety needs are met, the need arose the third layer. You begin to feel the need friends, lovers, children and form relationships based on feelings of Others. Viewed negatively, you will be more worried about solitude and loneliness. In everyday life, this need can form a desire to get married, have families, become part of a group or community.

Self-Esteem needs

After that we will seek self-esteem. Maslow says that there are two forms of self-esteem needs are: the shape of the weak and strong. Weak form is our need for respect of others, the need for status, glory, honor, attention, reputation, appreciation and even dominance. While strong is our need for confidence, competence, success, independence and freedom. The second form is more powerful because we do not release it once obtained, in contrast to our need for respect of others. Negative form of the need for self-esteem is low self-esteem and inferiority complexes. Maslow justify Adler as saying that the problem is the basis for psychological problems. In modern countries, most people are only concerned with physiological and safety needs. Often people do not really care about their needs for love and longing.

Self-actualization needs

namely the need to recognize reality. So humans have a strong desire to know, understand just open about himself, but also beyond himself. This last level is a bit different from the four previous level. Maslow called these levels with different terms: motivation of growth (as opposed to motivation devisit), needs to exist (being-needs) or B-Needs (as opposed to D-Needs). B-Needs is the need for self-actualization. Self-actualization needs requires no balancing or homeostatic. Once obtained, he will continue to be felt. This requirement will indeed increase if we “spread”. These needs include the desire to continually realize the potentials themselves, the desire to “become what you can”. This need is more of a problem to be perfect, to be “you” the truth. Hence the need is called self-actualization.

SOURCE: http://psychologyface.com/2011/07/abraham-maslows-theory-of-personality/

Comment:

From this psychological theory of Abraham Maslow, in this article tell about a little biography about abraham maslow. He has a theory about hierarci needs in human life, there are pyschological needs (the basic needs such as sleep, drink, rest, breathe oxygen), the needs for security (good neighbor, a secure job, etc), the need of love and longing (love from someone who loved you), self-esteem needs (powerful, respect of others), and self actualization needs (to be perfect, to be you"). Everyone have this needs, when we was born until die, so important for us to learn this theory and I think that very interesting to understand psichology in ourself.

Psychological Approaches to Literature 1

FRUDIAN'S THEORY


During the twentieth century there has been a shift away from the “who done it “genre to the “why did he do it” Major writers have included Hermann Hess., Franz Kafka, James Joyce and Virginia Woolf.

In literary criticism some critics have abandoned the formalistic/aesthetic approach because of their limitations and inadequacies in coming to terms with the major concerns of modern literature. Rather than being “Art for Arts sake”, modern literature tends to be more exploratory and didactic. The emphasis is more on character and motivation than on form and structure.

The psychological approach to literary criticism is very controversial and is easily abused.

Some critics argue that it was already used by Aristotle in his Poetics in the 4 th century BC, when he defined tragedy as combining the emotions of pity and terror to produce “catharsis”.. These critics argue that this is merely a sub—conscious emotional response to literature.


FREUDIAN THEORIES


1. Core theory — the unconscious aspects of the human psyche.

Most of our actions (mental processes) are motivated by psychic forces over which we have little control.

· Mind is like an iceberg — its greatest weight and density lies below the surface.

Two kinds of unconsciousness

a) pre—conscious — latent not directly aware of something, however with effort. it can be retrieved

b) unconcious — something very difficult to revivte mocceesfully blocked or repressed. Comes out in perverse ways.

Ex Novel/Movie — “Marnie

.2. Second theory (now rejected by most psychologists including Carl Jung, his disciple).

“All human behaviour is ultimately motivated by sexuality.”




3. Freud’s Three Psychic Zones


1. Id — reservoir of libido

— primary source of all psychic energy

— functions to fulfil the primordial life principle

— our basic drives (S)

— pleasure principle

— no rational order / organisation/ will

— impulse to obtain gratification of instinctual needs

no regard for social conventions — asocial

— no values — good/evil amorphous/ amoral

— source of all aggression desires

— lawless, self—destructive

— pre—Freudians called it the “devil” in man



2. Ego

regulating agency to curb the Id

— protects the individual and society

— rational, reasoning, logical

— partially conscious

— aware of reality



3.. Super Ego

— Largely unconscious

— moral censoring agent

— conscience, self—image, pride

— moral restrictions or repression of Id.

— blocks off or represses those drives which society regards as unacceptable.. operates on rewards and punishments

— an overactive S.E. creates unconscious guilt (complex).



Healthy person has a well balanced Pyche, while an imbalance of any one force causes mental stress — neurosis - today of called a syndrome or a disorder.



Id pleasure principle animals

Ego reality mankind

Super Ego morality “ angels



Applications of Frued’s theories


1) Symbolism — most images interpreted in terms of sexuality

a) concave images (ponds, flowers, cups, vases, caves, hollows, tunnels)

—female or womb symbols

b) long (erect) images (towers, snakes, knives, swords, trees, poles, sky scrapers, missiles)

— male or phallic symbols

c) activities (dancing riding, flying) symbols of sexual pleasure.

· Of ten pushed too far — Little Red Riding Hood

2) Child Psychology

infant and childhood are formative years a period of intense sexual development and awareness.

First five years children pass through several phases in erotic development.

1) Oral 2) Anal 3) Genital

Frustration in the gratification of any of these: eating, elimination, or reproduction may result in an adult personality that is warped.

If a child’s development is arrested in any one of these phases, he may develop a “fixation”.

Fixation:

1. Oral — pre—mature weaning may result in cigarette smoking

2. Anal — overly strict toilet training — fastidious, fussy

3. Genital — close attachment to parent — may develop either an Oedipus or Electra Complex.


Psychological Defence Mechanisms


Our ego is very delicate and fragile and so we often use ways and means to

try to protect it. In the face of confusion, disappointment, failure, conflict and frustration, our psyche needs help to cope. Without “psychological crutches” we become stressed or anxious. We can have three reactions to Anxiety or stress:

1) Attack problem and develop solutions.

2) Ignore the problem, hope it will go away.

3) Def end ourselves (our ego, self esteem, image)

Psychological Mechanisms,
I Substitution - Compensating
· Overdoing one thing to cover up deficiencies in other areas.

· conversationalist — good talker — not a doer.



I I. Repression - Blocking
· Try to forget failures or unfortunate incident.

· we forget to perform unpleasant duties.



I I I RATIONALISATION - Justifications
· we substitute a “good reason” for an action rather than the real one.

· wishful thinking — not reasoning



IV. REGRESSION - Reverting to former states.

· Reverting to childish behaviour or habits

· often covers up fact that we can not cope with problem.



V. SUBLIMATION
· Basic drives become expressed in socially accepted forms.

· hostility expressed in competitive sports.

· a blood thirsty individual becomes a butcher.



VI. - IDENTIFICATION
· Role—playing — we take on characteristics of a person we admire. a Hero—worship or modelling (apeing)



VII. INSULATION
· Protective Shell

· being aloof, distant, unconcerned, cold, “don’t care”

· self-sufficient, detached “cool”.



VIII. SCAPEGOATING - Justification
· Blaming our own faults, deficiencies, inadequacies on others.



IX. INTELLECTUALISATION
· Trying to remain objective, analytical, untouched in an emotionally threatening event.



X. MALINGERING - A Psycho-somatic disorder

· Adjusting through injury.

· Taking to your bed

· Having a headache

· Feeling sick to the stomach



XI. AGGRESSION -

Reacting rather than responding to a situation.

· You become overwhelmed by frustration and a sense of powerlessness or impotence to the extent that you react in a violent, vindictive and destructive manner.

SOURCE:http://nebo-lit.com/topic-areas/critical-lit/Psychological-Approach-to-Literature